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About gearboxes and gear systems for cars, other vehicles and mechanical machines

In mechanics, a transmission or gearbox is the system of gears and/or the hydraulic system (called variously "hydrodynamic", "fluid" or "automatic" transmission) that transmits mechanical power from a prime mover—such as an engine or electric motor—to a typically rotary output device at a lower angular momentum but at a higher motive torque.


Generally
Transmissions provide a speed-power conversion known as gear reduction (in speed) to a higher torque (rotational force) using gearsets. In motor vehicles, the transmission provides different speed-power ratios known as "gears" or "speeds", some of which may be in the reverse direction. Tractors and large trucks especially may have a dozen or more forward "gears" which vary from a crawling speed at high torque to high speed at low torque where the only torque needed with a load coasting along at a given speed are that small additional energy (force) needed to overcome ongoing friction and other road losses such as climbing a grade. When the torque needed to surmount a grade is insufficient at a higher rotational speed, the gearbox is shifted into a lower gear to provide more power, as was needed when initially accelerating said vehicle to the desired road speed. Gearing has much in common with the mechanics and mechanical factors present in pulley systems. One trades distance (numbers of rotations) for increased force.


Explanation
Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, and hoisting. Most modern gearboxes either reduce an unsuitable high speed and low torque of the prime mover output shaft to a more usable lower speed with higher torque, or do the opposite and provide a mechanical advantage (i.e increase in torque) to allow higher forces to be generated. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the physical direction in which power is transmitted.

Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several different gear ratios. In this case, most of the gear ratios (simply called "gears") are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque. However, the highest gears may be "overdrive" types that increase the output speed.


Uses
Gearboxes have found use in a wide variety of different—often stationary—applications.

Transmissions are also used in agricultural, industrial, construction, mining and vehicle equipment. In addition to ordinary transmission equipped with gears, such equipment makes extensive use of the hydrostatic drive and electrical adjustable-speed drives.


Simple
The simplest transmissions, often called gearboxes to reflect their simplicity (although complex systems are also called gearboxes in the vernacular), provide gear reduction (or, more rarely, an increase in speed), sometimes in conjunction with a right-angle change in direction of the shaft (typically in helicopters, see picture). These are often used on PTO-powered agricultural equipment, since the axial PTO shaft is at odds with the usual need for the driven shaft, which is either vertical (as with rotary mowers), or horizontally extending from one side of the implement to another (as with manure spreaders, flail mowers, and forage wagons). More complex equipment, such as silage choppers and snowblowers, have drives with outputs in more than one direction.

Regardless of where they are used, these simple transmissions all share an important feature: the gear ratio cannot be changed during use. It is fixed at the time the transmission is constructed.


Multi-ratio systems
Many applications require the availability of multiple gear ratios. Often, this is to ease the starting and stopping of a mechanical system, though another important need is that of maintaining good fuel economy.
 

 

Gearboxes in cars and motorized vehicles

Automotive basics
The need for a transmission in an automobile is a consequence of the characteristics of the internal combustion engine. Engines typically operate over a range of 600 to about 7000 revolutions per minute (though this varies from design to design and is typically less for diesel engines), while the car's wheels rotate between 0 rpm and around 2500 rpm.

Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque outputs approximately in the middle of its range, while often the greatest torque is required when the vehicle is moving from rest or travelling slowly. Therefore, a system that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high torque at low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating within its limits, is required. Transmissions perform this transformation.

Most transmissions and gears used in automotive and truck applications are contained in a cast iron case, though sometimes aluminum is used for lower weight. There are three shafts: a mainshaft, a countershaft, and an idler shaft.

The mainshaft extends outside the case in both directions: the input shaft towards the engine, and the output shaft towards the rear axle (on rear wheel drive cars). The shaft is suspended by the main bearings, and is split towards the input end. At the point of the split, a pilot bearing holds the shafts together. The gears and clutches ride on the mainshaft, the gears being free to turn relative to the mainshaft except when engaged by the clutches.

Automobile includes manual, automatic or semi-automatic transmission.


Manual
Main article: manual transmission
Manual transmissions come in two basic types: a simple unsynchronized system where gears are spinning freely and must be synchronized by the operator to avoid noisy and damaging "gear clash", and synchronized systems that will automatically "mesh" while changing gears. The former type is only used on some rally cars and heavy-duty trucks nowadays.

Manual transmissions dominate the car market outside of North America. They are cheaper, lighter, usually give better performance, and fuel efficiency (although the latest sophisticated automatic transmissions may yield results slightly closer to the ones yielded by manual transmissions), and it is customary for new drivers to learn, and be tested, on a car with a manual gear change. In Japan, Philippines, Germany, Austria, the UK[1] [2], Ireland[3], Sweden, France, Australia, Finland and Israel, a test pass using an automatic car does not entitle the driver to use a manual car on the public road unless a second manual test is taken.[citation needed] Manual transmissions are much more common than automatic transmissions in Asia, Africa, South America & Europe.


Automatic
Main article: automatic transmission

Epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing as used in an automatic transmission.Most modern North American cars have an automatic transmission that will select an appropriate gear ratio without any operator intervention. They primarily use hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a torque converter is put in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use is usually not possible.

Automatic transmissions are easy to use. In the past, automatic transmissions of this type have had a number of problems; they were complex and expensive, sometimes had reliability problems (which sometimes caused more expenses in repair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts and their shift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the advancement of modern automatic transmissions this has changed. With computer technology, considerable effort has been put into designing gearboxes based on the simpler manual systems that use electronically-controlled actuators to shift gears and manipulate the clutch, resolving many of the drawbacks of a hydraulic automatic transmission.

Automatic transmissions have always been extremely popular in the United States, where perhaps 19 of 20 new cars are sold with them[citation needed](many vehicles are not available with manual gearboxes anymore).

Attempts to improve the fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque converters which lock-up beyond a certain speed eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears which automatically actuate above certain speeds; in older transmissions both technologies could sometimes become intrusive, when conditions are such that they repeatedly cut in and out as speed and such load factors as grade or wind vary slightly. Current computerized transmissions possess very complex programming to both maximize fuel efficiency and eliminate any intrusiveness.

For certain applications, the slippage inherent in automatic transmissions can be advantageous; for instance, in drag racing, the automatic transmission allows the car to be stopped with the engine at a high rpm (the "stall speed") to allow for a very quick launch when the brakes are released; in fact, a common modification is to increase the stall speed of the transmission. This is even more advantageous for turbocharged engines, where the turbocharger needs to be kept spinning at high rpm by a large flow of exhaust in order to keep the boost pressure up and eliminate the turbo lag that occurs when the engine is idling and the throttle is suddenly opened.


Semi-automatic
The creation of computer control also allowed for a sort of half-breed transmission where the car handles manipulation of the clutch automatically, but the driver can still select the gear manually if desired. This is sometimes called "clutchless manual" or "robotized". Many of these transmissions allow the driver to give full control to the computer.

There are some specific types of this transmission, including Tiptronic, Geartronic, and Direct-Shift Gearbox.

There are also sequential transmissions which use the rotation of a drum to switch gears.

 

 

Bicycle gearing

The gearing on a bicycle is the selection of appropriate gear ratios for optimum efficiency or comfort. Different gears and ranges of gears are appropriate for different people and styles of cycling. Multi-speed bicycles allow gear selection to suit the circumstances, e.g. it may be comfortable to use a high gear when cycling downhill, a medium gear when cycling on a flat road, and a low gear when cycling uphill.

On a bicycle, power is transmitted from the rider's legs to the rear wheel via the pedals, crankset, chain, and rear hub. A cyclist's legs produce power optimally within a narrow pedalling speed range. Gearing is optimized to use this narrow range as best as possible. As in other types of transmissions, the gear ratio is closely related to the mechanical advantage of the drivetrain of the bicycle. On single-speed bicycles and multi-speed bicycles using derailleur gears, the gear ratio is the ratio of the number of teeth on the chainring of the crankset and the rear cog or sprocket. In the case of a derailleur-equipped bicycle, this sprocket is one of several comprising the cassette. On hub gears the ratio is determined by the internal planetary gears within the hub.

For the same speed, or more accurately, power output at the rear wheel, a lower gear (larger mechanical advantage) will require the rider to pedal at a faster cadence, but with less force. Conversely, a higher gear (smaller mechanical advantage) allows a higher speed for a given cadence, but requiring greater force. Different cyclists may have different preferences for cadence and pedalling force. Prolonged exertion of too much force in too high a gear at too low a speed can increase the chance of knee damage.


General considerations
The gearing supplied by the manufacturer on a new bicycle is selected to be useful to the majority of people. Some cyclists choose to fine-tune the gearing to better suit their strength, level of fitness, and expected usage. When buying from specialist cycle shops, it may be less expensive to get the gears altered before delivery rather than at some later date. Modern crankset chainrings can be swapped out, as can cassettes.

As far as a cyclist's legs are concerned, when changing gears, the relative difference between two gears is more important than the absolute difference between gears. This relative change, from a lower gear to a higher gear, is normally expressed as a percentage. This measure is independent of what system is used to measure the gears. Cycling tends to feel more comfortable if nearly all gear changes have more or less the same percentage difference; a larger percentage difference may be acceptable for lower gears where the absolute difference is not too large. Thus, the absolute gear ratios should be in logarithmic progression.

Racing cyclists often have close-range gears with a difference of around 7%. Many general-purpose gears have a difference of around 15%. Differences of 25% or more require a very substantial change in cadence and often feel excessive. A step of 7% corresponds to a 1-tooth change from a 14-tooth cog to a 15-tooth cog, while a step of 15% corresponds to a 2-tooth change from a 13-tooth cog to a 15-tooth cog.

By contrast, car engines deliver power over a much larger range of speeds than do cyclist's legs, so relative differences of 30% or more are common for car gearboxes.


History
Bicycles and their predecessors were directly driven by the feet. The penny-farthing used a large driven front wheel to increase the top speed, the distance covered per revolution depending only on the wheel size. The safety bicycle introduced driving the rear wheel via a chain, allowing faster travel on a smaller wheel and introducing the concept of bicycle gearing. Later improvements included the freewheel and shifter.

An early multi-speed bicycle used a double-sided rear wheel, with different-sized sprockets on each side. To change gears, the rider would stop and dismount, remove the rear wheel and reinstall it in the reverse direction. One example of this type of bicycle is in the Science Museum (London, UK).

Derailleur systems were first developed in the late 1800s, but the modern cable-operated parallelogram derailleur was invented in the 1950s.


External type

External gearing utilizes derailleurs, which can be placed on both the front chainring and on the rear cluster or cassette, to push the chain to either side, derailing it from one sprocket to a neighboring sprocket. The sides of the sprockets may be sculpted to help catch the chain, pulling it up onto their teeth to change gears. There may be 1 to 3 chainrings, and 5 to 10 sprockets on the cassette or freewheel. Derailleur type mechanisms of a typical mid-range product (of the sort used by serious amateurs) achieve between 88% and 99% mechanical efficiency at 100W. In derailleur mechanisms the highest efficiency is achieved by the larger cogs. Efficiency generally decreases with smaller cog and chainwheel sizes.[1] Derailleur efficiency is also compromised with cross-chaining, or running large-ring to large-cog or small-ring to small-cog. This also results in increased wear because of the lateral deflection of the chain.


Internal type (hub)
Internal hub gearing works by planetary, or epicyclic, gearing, in which the outer case of the hub gear unit turns at a different speed relative to the rear axle depending on which gear is selected. Rear hub gears may offer 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, or 14 speeds. Bottom bracket fittings offer a choice of 2 speeds, and are generally foot-operated. Internal hub gears are immune to adverse weather conditions that affect derailleurs, and often last longer and require less maintenance. However, they may be heavier and/or more expensive, and often do not offer the same range or number of gears. Internal hub gearing still predominates in some regions, particularly on utility bikes, whereas in other regions, such as the USA, external derailleur systems predominate. In a typical hub gear mechanism the mechanical efficiency will be between 82% and 92% depending on the ratio selected. Which ratios are best and worst depends on the specific model of hub gear.


Fixed gear
Fixed-gear track racing bikes can achieve transmission efficiencies of over 99% (nearly all the energy put in at the pedals ends up at the wheel). Biomechanical factors however determine that a human can deliver maximum power only over a narrow range of crank rotational speed or cadence. To match the power source with the load under varying conditions, a variable gear ratio is needed, and they work very well, though at the expense of mechanical efficiency. The efficiency varies considerably with the gear ratio being used.


Others
There have been, and still are, drivetrains that are quite different from those above:

Retro-Direct drivetrains used on some early 20th century bicycles have been resurrected by bicycle hobbyists. These have two gears but no gear lever; the operator simply pedals forward for one gear and backward for the other.
Other bicycles of that era dispensed with the chain entirely and used an enclosed driveshaft and bevel gears. These shaft-driven bicycle were strongly built but were not mechanically efficient. They were primarily marketed to women, as the enclosed gears would not entangle clothing. In recent years, a small number of shaft-drive systems have reappeared on the market as a specialty item[citation needed].
In recent years, Steve Christini and Mike Dunn added a two-wheel drive option to bicyclists. Their AWD system, aimed at mountain bikers, comprises an adapted differential that sends power to the front wheel once the rear begins to slip.
Automatic transmissions have been demonstrated and marketed for both derailleur and hub gear mechanisms, often accompanied by a warning to disengage auto-shifting if standing on the pedals. These have met with limited market success.

Measuring gears
With a derailleur-based multi-speed bicycle, the gears can be denoted by the number of teeth on the front chainring and rear sprocket, for example the highest gear on a racing bicycle might be 53x11. For a road-racing cyclist, this is useful because of the standard size of the wheel. However, this measure is limited because it does not specify other aspects of the system. Gear inches and metres of development are related measures that include the diameter of the rear wheel. Gain ratio is a measure which also takes the length of the crankarms into account.

With a hub gear, gear ratios are given directly.

Gear inches and meters of development of a gear combination are defined:

Gear inches = Diameter of drive wheel in inches × number of teeth in front chainring / number of teeth in rear cog.
Metres of development = Circumference of drive wheel in meters × number of teeth in front chainring / number of teeth in rear cog.
Metres of development corresponds to the distance (in metres) traveled by the bicycle for one rotation of the pedals. Gear inches has no current physical significance; it corresponds to the diameter of the main wheel of an old-fashioned penny-farthing bicycle with equivalent gearing.

 

 

Infinitely Variable Transmission (IVT)
 

A specific type of CVT is the infinitely variable transmission (IVT), which has an infinite range of input/output ratios in addition to its infinite number of possible ratios; this qualification for the IVT implies that its range of ratios includes a zero output/input ratio that can be continuously approached from a defined "higher" ratio. A zero output implies an infinite input, which can be continuously approached from a given finite input value with an IVT. Low gears are a reference to low ratios of output/input which have high input/output ratios that are taken to the extreme with IVTs, resulting in a "neutral", or non-driving "low" gear limit. Most continuously variable transmissions are not infinitely variable.

Most (if not all) IVTs result from the combination of a CVT with an epicyclic gear system (which is also known as a planetary gear system) that facilitates the subtraction of one speed from another speed within the set of input and planetary gear rotations. This subtraction only needs to result in a continuous range of values that includes a zero output; the maximum output/input ratio can be arbitrarily chosen from infinite practical possibilities through selection of extraneous input or output gear, pulley or sprocket sizes without affecting the zero output or the continuity of the whole system. Importantly, the IVT is distinguished as being "infinite" in its ratio of high gear to low gear within its range; high gear is infinite times higher than low gear. The IVT is always engaged, even during its zero output adjustment.

The term "Infinitely Variable Transmission" does not imply reverse direction, disengagement, automatic operation, or any other quality except ratio selectabilty within a continuous range of input/output ratios from a defined minimum to an undefined, "infinite" maximum. This means continuous range from a defined output/input to zero output/input ratio.


Ratcheting CVT
The Ratcheting CVT is a transmission that relies on static friction and is based on a set of elements that successively become engaged and then disengaged between the driving system and the driven system, often using oscillating or indexing motion in conjunction with one-way clutches or ratchets that rectify and sum only "forward" motion. The transmission ratio is adjusted by changing linkage geometry within the oscillating elements, so that the summed maximum linkage speed is adjusted, even when the average linkage speed remains constant. Power is transferred from input to output only when the clutch or ratchet is engaged, and therefore when it is locked into a static friction mode where the driving & driven rotating surfaces momentarily rotate together without slippage.

These CVTs can transfer substantial torque because their static friction actually increases relative to torque throughput, so slippage is impossible in properly designed systems. Efficiency is generally high because most of the dynamic friction is caused by very slight transitional clutch speed changes. The drawback to ratcheting CVTs is vibration caused by the successive transition in speed required to accelerate the element which must supplant the previously operating & decelerating, power transmitting element. An Infinitely Variable Transmission (IVT) that is based on a Ratcheting CVT and subtraction of one speed from another will greatly amplify the vibration as the IVT output/input ratio approaches zero.

Ratcheting CVTs are distinguished from Variable Diameter Pulleys (VDPs) and Roller-based CVTs by being static friction-based devices, as opposed to being dynamic friction-based devices that waste significant energy through slippage of twisting surfaces.


Variable-diameter pulley (VDP) or Reeves Drive
In this system, there are two v-belt pulleys that are split perpendicular to their axes of rotation, with a v-belt running between them. The gear ratio is changed by moving the two sections of one pulley closer together and the two sections of the other pulley farther apart. Due to the v-shaped cross section of the belt, this causes the belt to ride higher on one pulley and lower on the other. Doing this changes the effective diameters of the pulleys, which changes the overall gear ratio. The distance between the pulleys does not change, and neither does the length of the belt, so changing the gear ratio means both pulleys must be adjusted (one bigger, the other smaller) simultaneously to maintain the proper amount of tension on the belt.


Roller-based CVT (marketed as the Traction CVT, Extroid CVT, Nuvinci CVP, or IVT)

Consider two almost-conical parts, point to point, with the sides dished such that the two parts could fill the central hole of a torus. One part is the input, and the other part is the output (they do not quite touch). Power is transferred from one side to the other by one or more rollers. When the roller's axis is perpendicular to the axis of the almost-conical parts, it contacts the almost-conical parts at same-diameter locations and thus gives a 1:1 gear ratio. The roller can be moved along the axis of the almost-conical parts, changing angle as needed to maintain contact. This will cause the roller to contact the almost-conical parts at varying and distinct diameters, giving a gear ratio of something other than 1:1. Systems may be partial or full toroidal. Full toroidal systems are the most efficient design while partial toroidals may still require a torque converter (e.g., Jatco "Extroid"), and hence lose efficiency.


Hydrostatic CVTs
Hydrostatic transmissions use a variable displacement pump and a hydraulic motor. All power is transmitted by hydraulic fluid. These types can generally transmit more torque, but can be sensitive to contamination. Some designs are also very expensive. However, they have the advantage that the hydraulic motor can be mounted directly to the wheel hub, allowing a more flexible suspension system and eliminating efficiency losses from friction in the drive shaft and differential components. This type of transmission is relatively easy to use because all forward and reverse speeds can be accessed using a single lever.

This type of transmission has been effectively applied to a variety of inexpensive and expensive versions of ridden lawn mowers and garden tractors. Many versions of riding lawn mowers and garden tractors propelled by a hydrostatic transmission are capable of pulling a reverse tine tiller and even a single bladed plow.

One class of riding lawn mower that has recently gained in popularity with consumers is zero turning radius mowers. These mowers have traditionally been powered with wheel hub mounted hydraulic motors driven by continuously variable pumps, but this design is relatively expensive. A company call Hydro-Gear, a joint venture between Sauer-Danfoss and Agri-Fab, Inc., of Sullivan, Illinois, created the first cost-effective integrated hydrostatic transaxle suitable for propelling consumer zero turning radius mowers. An integrated hydrostatic transaxle (IHT) uses a single housing for both hydraulic elements and gear-reducing elements. As of May 9, 2007, Hydro-Gear remains the only company producing integrated hydrostatic transaxles for consumer zero turning radius mowers in North America.

Some heavy equipment may also be propelled by a hydrostatic transmission; e.g. agricultural machinery including foragers and combines, but not anything that works the ground because the transmission cannot transmit enough torque.


Hydristor IVT
The Hydristor torque converter is a true IVT in that the front unit connected to the engine can displace from zero to 27 cubic inches per revolution forward and zero to -10 cubic inches per revolution reverse. The rear unit is capable of zero to 75 cubic inches per revolution. The common "kidney port" plate between the two sections communicates the hydraulic fluid under pressure and suction return in a "serpentine-torodial" flow path between the two Hydristor internal units. The IVT ratio is determined by the ratio of input displacement to output displacement. Therefore, the theoretical range of Hydristor IVT ratios is 1/infinity to +-infinity/1 but real-world ratios are constrained by physics.


Simkins' Ratcheting CVT
This transmission is an example of a Ratcheting CVT, prototyped as a bicycle transmission, protected under U.S. Patent #5516132. The input is the crank with a round hub integrated with it, and an array of twelve arms that are pivotally mounted to pins in the hub circle. Each arm has a pinion gear mounted on a one way clutch that allows only clockwise rotation of the pinion relative to the arm. All of these pinions are engaged with a large ring gear that is integrated with the chainwheel as the output, and the ring gear/chainwheel assembly is mounted to a mechanism that enables it to be adjusted from a position of concentricity with the crank hub to various amounts of eccentricity with the crank hub. Adjustment of this eccentricity variably changes the output/input ratio from 1:1 to 2.6:1 as the ring gear/sprocket assembly is moved from a position concentric with the crank hub to an eccentric position.

The eccentricity control mechanism is connected to a spring that pushes the transmission into its eccentric high gear position. The largest spread of the arms is indicative of the gear ratio because the spreading arms are the only arms whose pinions (and one-way clutches) are locked and driving the ring gear/chainwheel assembly. Strong pedaling torque causes this mechanism to react against the spring, moving the ring gear/chainwheel assembly toward a concentric, lower gear position. When the pedaling torque relaxes to lower levels, the transmission self-adjusts toward higher gears, accompanied by an increase in transmission vibration. This transmission behaves according to the definition of a Ratcheting CVT.


Advantages and drawbacks compared to hydraulic automatic transmissions

CVTs can smoothly compensate for changing vehicle speeds, allowing the engine speed to remain at its level of peak efficiency. They might also avoid torque converter losses. This improves both fuel economy and exhaust emissions. However, some units (e.g., Jatco "Extroid") also employ a torque converter. Fuel efficiency advantages as high as 20% over four-speed automatics can be obtained.
CVTs have much smoother operation. This can give a perception of low power, because many drivers expect a jerk when they begin to move the vehicle. The satisfying jerk of a non-CVT can be emulated by CVT control software though, eliminating this marketing problem.
Since the CVT keeps the engine turning at constant RPMs over a wide range of vehicle speeds, pressing on the accelerator pedal will make the car move faster but doesn't change the sound coming from the engine as much as a conventional automatic transmission gear-shift. This confuses some drivers and, again, leads to a mistaken impression of a lack of power.
Most CVTs are simpler to build and repair.
CVT torque handling capability is limited by the strength of their belt or chain, and by their ability to withstand friction wear between torque source and transmission medium for friction-driven CVTs. CVTs in production prior to 2005 are predominantly belt or chain driven and therefore typically limited to low powered cars and other light duty applications. More advanced IVT units using advanced lubricants, however, have been proven to support any amount of torque in production vehicles, including that used for buses, heavy trucks, and earth moving equipment.


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