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About hormones and neurotransmittors

Hormones are signal substances produced by glands in one part of the body to regulate the function of organs in another part. An example is the thyroid hormones, produced by the thyroid gland to regulate, and mostly speed up the metabolism in most parts of the body.

Other examples are hormones produced by the pituitary to regulate the thyroid gland and the sexual organs. The pituitary gland actually regulates the function of other hormone producing glands by its hormones.

The signals transmitted by the nervous system must be carried from the end of one nerve cell over to the next. This is done by signal substances called neurotransmittors.

Chemically hormones and neurotransmittors resamble each other, and some substances work both as hormones and neurotransmittors, for example adrenaline that is both a hormone produced by the adrenal gland and a neurotransmittor.

The molecules of most hormones and neurotransmittors have a group reacting as a base and containing nitogen. They are useually modified amino acids or made from amino acids. Amino acids contain such an atomic group, the amino group.

Hormonal diseases imply too high or too low production of a hormone. Psychological diseases usually imply a too high or a too low production of neurotransmittors in parts of the brain.

An optimal production of hormones and neurotransmittors is dependent of a good nutritional status, so that the body gets all the building blocks it needs for the production.

About the hormone serotonine

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal tract of animals including humans. Serotonin is also found in many mushrooms and plants, including fruits and vegetables.

In the central nervous system, serotonin is believed to play an important role in the regulation of anger, aggression, body temperature, mood, sleep, vomiting, sexuality, and appetite. Low levels of serotonin may be associated with several disorders, namely increase in aggressive and angry behaviors, clinical depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), migraine, irritable bowel syndrome, tinnitus, fibromyalgia, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders[citation needed] and intense religious experiences. If neurons of the brainstem that make serotonin—serotonergic neurons—are abnormal, there is a risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

Isolated and named in 1948 by Maurice M. Rapport, Arda Green, and Irvine Page, the name "serotonin" is something of a misnomer and reflects the circumstances of the compound's discovery. It was initially identified as a vasoconstrictor substance in blood serum – hence serotonin, a serum agent affecting vascular tone. This agent was later chemically identified as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) by Rapport, and, as the broad range of physiological roles were elucidated, 5-HT became the preferred name in the pharmacological field.

Serotonin is synthesized extensively in the human gastrointestinal tract (about 90%), and the major storage place is platelets in the blood stream.

In the body, serotonin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan by a short metabolic pathway consisting of two enzymes – tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) and amino acid decarboxylase (DDC). The TPH mediated reaction is the rate limiting step in the pathway. TPH has been shown to exist in two forms; TPH1, found in several tissues and TPH2, which is a brain specific isoform. There is evidence that genetic polymorphisms in both these subtypes influence susceptibility to anxiety and depression (Nash et al 2005; Zhang et al 2005). There is also evidence that ovarian hormones can affect the expression of TPH in various species, suggesting a possible mechanism for postpartum depression and premenstrual stress syndrome (Hiroi et al 2006). The gut secretes over 95% of the body's serotonin.[

(Much of the text has as source wikipedia.org)

About the neurotransmitter GABA - gamma aminobutyric acid

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (usually abbreviated to GABA) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter found in the nervous systems of widely divergent species. It is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and also in the retina.

Sleep occurs when certain brain cells give signals to brain cells that perform conscious processes to decrease their activity. The cells that command other cells to relaxe their work use GABA as a neurotransmittor. Therefore deficiency of GABA or anything hindering GABA to make effect, will disturbe sleep.

Also during the wake state, there there is a balance in the brain and spinal cord between signals to increase acuivities and signals to relax activities. Therefore lack GABA or disturbances in the functions of GABA can cause restlessness and muscular tension.

In vertebrates, GABA acts at inhibitory synapses in the brain. GABA acts by binding to specific transmembrane receptors in the plasma membrane of both pre- and postsynaptic neurons. This binding causes the opening of ion channels to allow either the flow of negatively-charged chloride ions into the cell or positively-charged potassium ions out of the cell. This will typically result in a negative change in the transmembrane potential, usually causing hyperpolarization. Three general classes of GABA receptor are known. These include GABAA and GABAC ionotropic receptors, which are ion channels themselves, and GABAB metabotropic receptors, which are G protein-coupled receptors that open ion channels via intermediaries (G proteins).

Neurons that produce GABA as their output are called GABAergic neurons, and have chiefly inhibitory action at receptors in the adult vertebrate. Medium Spiny Cells are a typical example of inhibitory CNS GABAergic cells. GABA exhibits excitatory actions in insects, mediating muscle activation at synapses between nerves and muscle cells and also the stimulation of certain glands. In hippocampus and neocortex of the mammalian brain, GABA has primarily excitatory effects early in development, and is in fact the major excitatory neurotransmitter in many regions of the brain prior to the maturation of glutamate synapses - See developing cortex. Whether GABA is excitatory or inhibitory depends on the direction (into or out of the cell) and magnitude of the ionic currents controlled by the GABAA receptor. When net positive ionic current is directed into the cell, GABA is excitatory, when the net positive current is directed out of the cell, GABA is inhibitory. A developmental switch in the molecular machinery controlling the polarity of this current is responsible for the changes in the functional role of GABA between the neonatal and adult stages.

In spastic cerebral palsy in humans, GABA cannot be absorbed properly by the damaged nerve rootlets leading to certain muscles. This leads to hypertonia in those muscles.


Organisms synthesize GABA from glutamate using the enzyme L-glutamic acid decarboxylase and pyridoxal phosphate as a cofactor. It is worth noting that this involves converting the principal excitatory neurotransmitter (glutamate) into the principal inhibitory one (GABA).

(Much of the text has as source wikipedia.org)

These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This information is nutritional in nature and should not be construed as medical advice. This notice is required by the Federal Food, Drug and cosmetic act.